What is rhetoric and how to use the art of speech in modern times.

 

What is rhetoric?

Rhetoric is the theory of public speaking, the science of eloquence. Rhetoric in the modern sense and in a broad sense is understood as an academic discipline where the history of the field, its methods and techniques are studied. Since ancient times, the purpose of studying rhetoric has been the so—called facilitas - the ability to create appropriate and effective language in any situation. In another sense, the word refers to bombastic and meaningless speech. In Dahl's dictionary, there is an example of the use of "rhetorical", "rhetorical" with negative connotations - it means to speak or write flowerily, artfully and artificially. Sometimes this style is associated with a person or a group, which gives rise to expressions like "Reagan rhetoric", "rhetoric of the West". Sophistry is used as a counterbalance to the art of rhetoric. Sophists used "dirty tricks", often based on logical errors and false conclusions. One of the most famous sophisms is: "What you haven't lost, you have. You haven't lost your horns. So you have horns." It is important to distinguish between rhetoric and sophistry. Manipulation, distortion of facts, and substitution of concepts to achieve a goal are all sophistry, demagoguery, or so-called black rhetoric. They have nothing to do with the classical, pure art of speech. Rhetoric has had ideals since the beginning of its development. For example, the rhetorical ideals of Socrates: - dialogical: not manipulating the addressee, but awakening his thoughts;

- harmonizing: not a victory or a struggle, but the achievement by the participants of communication of agreement on the meaning, purpose, and results of communication;

- Semantic: the search and discovery of the truth that is contained in the subject of conversation and can be discovered.

It was Socrates who became one of the founders of rhetoric and its further development.

The history of rhetoric as a science and art

The development of the art of rhetoric is associated with ancient Greece, where democracy appeared. It is believed that this particular political system has become a fertile ground for speakers, masters of argumentation theory and public speaking. In Athens, when the ancient Greeks ran for office, they used rhetoric in their speeches to win votes. The foundation of the rhetorical tradition, which is still used today, was laid by the Greek philosophers. Socrates opposed the false speeches of the sophists, because for him the truth was above human judgments. The philosopher did not leave any written works: the ideas came down to us in the form of the writings of his pupil Plato. The central character of many of Plato's dialogues is Socrates, who demonstrates a method of approaching the truth: posing various questions and answering them. Plato expounded his ideas on the theory of eloquence not only in his writings, but also by giving training courses at the academy he founded. One of her students was Aristotle, who also contributed to the development of rhetoric. He considered science essential in any field of human professional activity. Aristotle wrote several works on the art of speech. His famous book "Rhetoric" has come down to us.

One of the most famous and powerful schools of rhetorical art has developed in France. Since the 16th century, theological rhetoric has developed there, which then gave way to judicial, academic, and political rhetoric during the Great French Revolution. Voltaire, Diderot, Mirabeau, Danton, Robespierre are considered classics of oratory, masters of the word. Lomonosov studied rhetoric in the Russian Empire. In 1748, he wrote the textbook "A short guide to eloquence. The first book contains rhetoric, showing off the general rules of both eloquence, that is, oratorio and poetry, composed for the benefit of those who love verbal sciences." The title fully describes the content. Lomonosov considered rhetoric to be the science of written and oral speech, a set of rules. At the end of the XVIII century, the discipline began to be taught in gymnasiums, Merzlyakov's textbooks "Brief Rhetoric", Rizhsky's "Experience of Rhetoric", Nikolsky's "Foundations of Russian Literature" appeared. Now universities continue to teach rhetoric. There are academic disciplines in the fields of "Political Science", "Philology", "Journalism" and many others. Rhetorical techniques, argumentation theory, and rules of speech are used in a wide variety of fields, from professional activities to private communication. In order to set the task correctly, explain your point of view, motivate staff, captivate and ignite your employees with your idea, you will definitely need a tool such as vivid, imaginative, beautiful, structured speech. This is exactly what rhetoric provides.

At home, we need to agree on who will pick up the child from school today. At the meeting, it is important to convey your point of view correctly, and even in such a way that your project is accepted. Come to a compromise with the head of the related department on work processes and so on. In the 21st century, you can be an outstanding specialist in your field, a professional and a true master, but if you fail to convey your value, then moving up the business and career ladder will be difficult.

Types of rhetoric

In modern times, it is customary to divide rhetoric into general and private. The general one gives advice on the use of arguments, speech behavior, strategies and tactics of conversation. General rhetoric deals with the theory and practice of public speech.

Private rhetoric studies the laws of effective speech in the fields of professional activity. Conventionally, these are areas with "increased speech responsibility." Political rhetoric

Political rhetoric includes speeches by government representatives in the international arena, and addresses by leaders to the citizens of their country. One of the most prominent speakers in modern history is British Prime Minister Winston Churchill. His radio appearances during World War II brought the nation together, and the Fulton speech is believed to have marked the beginning of the Cold War. On May 13, 1940, he addressed the House of Commons with a speech that later became known as "Blood, Sweat and Tears." He talked about the war with Nazi Germany and the need to fight to victory. In the final part of his speech, Churchill said: "I offer you only blood, labor, tears and sweat. We are going to face a very difficult test. We have many long months of struggle and suffering ahead of us."[9]

Churchill's oratory was repeatedly shown in films and TV series, where the role of a politician went to the strongest actors. Recent appearances of the character on the screens include "The Crown," starring John Lithgow as the Prime Minister, and "Darkest Hour," starring Gary Oldman. [10]

Judicial rhetoric

This type of rhetoric includes speeches by lawyers and prosecutors. In the Russian Empire, the impetus for the development of the region in the 60-70s of the XIX century was given by judicial reform. The court became public in the country, and the public and journalists began to be allowed into the halls. This allowed the lawyers' oratorical talents to be fully revealed. The speeches of Konya, Karabchevsky, Spasovich, Plevako and others are considered the standards of judicial mastery of speeches. [11] Military

The military leadership and even ordinary soldiers use rhetoric to motivate the troops. This kind of rhetoric is familiar to most from books and movies. The series "Game of Thrones" abundantly shows the masters of military oratory. Daenerys Targaryen was terrifying not only because of her dragons, but she could also unite disparate wild tribes with a word. Tyrion Lannister raised the morale of the warriors in just a few minutes and repelled the attack on the castle.

Pedagogical

Lectures, educational presentations, even a simple lesson can become a place to reveal pedagogical rhetoric. For example, the famous chemist Mendeleev is considered an outstanding speaker, who was attended by both students and the general public. Dmitry Ivanovich "took the audience not with deliberate eloquence, not with the artificial passion of a preacher uttering immutable truths from the pulpit, but with amazing consistency, accuracy, coupled with the emotionality of the presentation." [12] These are not all types of private rhetoric. For example, there is business rhetoric, which studies communication in business and working relations; diplomatic rhetoric, and many others. Arguments of rhetoric

To turn words into effective rhetoric, Aristotle identified three "modes of persuasion"—logos, ethos, and pathos. Ideally, combine them to make a strong speech. The logo

The argument appeals to logic and reason, and relies on data and facts. Logos' tool is logical reasoning. The technique is very dominant in judicial rhetoric, where evidence is important. For example, in the movie To Kill a Mockingbird, in order to convince the jury of the innocence of right-handed Tom Robinson, the character Atticus Finch presents arguments proving that the criminal should have been left-handed. The Ethos

This element of rhetoric depends on the reputation of the person delivering the message. The writer or speaker must be a well-known person or a well-known authority on the subject. Conditionally, if a doctor tells you about the treatment of burns, you will believe him more than a person without a medical education. Aristotle also believed that you need to consider the time, place, and audience to which you deliver information. It is worth remembering about sociocultural phenomena at the moment in society, making references to familiar phrases and concepts. Pathos

He establishes an emotional connection with the viewer. Advertising often touches on the feelings that make people buy a product or service. Memorable speakers often become popular not only because of their "correct" speeches. A huge role is played by a person's temperament, his emotionality, gestures, and the pace of speech.

Rhetorical techniques

Rhetorical techniques are tools used to manipulate language to construct arguments. There are a number of stylistic and literary techniques that writers use to create a rhetorical effect and convey a point of view. Some of the most famous rhetorical techniques: Rhetorical questions. Unanswered questions. For example, "Do birds fly?" is a rhetorical question meaning, "Isn't it obvious?"

Hyperbole. Exaggeration to prove your point and impress the audience. Former U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt used hyperbole when he stated: "The only thing we should be afraid of is fear itself." Chiasmus. A figure of speech that changes the usual word order. Examples: "Learn to love art in yourself, not yourself in art" (Stanislavsky) and "Don't ask what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country" (John F. Kennedy).

Eutrepismus. One of the simplest rhetorical techniques. This is a list of facts or points. You can use the words "first", "second" and so on.

How to develop and improve the rhetoric of speech

Tips from effective communications coach, author of public speaking, voice and speech training courses Yulia Kozlova. 1. Work on diction clarity

In the age of telephone conversations, audio messages, and zoom conferences, voice is sometimes the only persuasive tool. Your every word should sound firm and clear. Pay attention to the pronunciation of the endings. Special exercises and control of the pace of speech will help to avoid the awkward question of the interlocutor: "Excuse me, what did you say?". 2. Get rid of parasitic words and develop vocabulary

Beautiful literate speech is not full of "well", "here", "like", "uh". An exercise that will help you improve your vocabulary in a minute. Imagine a three-liter jar in front of you. Set the timer for a minute. Now start listing the items that can "fit" in this jar. For example, it will include a toothbrush, but a shovel is no longer there. Keep a steady pace, name subjects from different areas, make sure that instead of pauses you don't get "eh". 3. Watch your voice tone and intonation.

Too high notes are perceived as childish (who wants to have serious business with children) or as a scream, and we want to distance ourselves from the scream. Public appearances and negotiations are conducted on the chest register. Otherwise, it is also called the "trust" register. Put your hand on your chest and say "aha" with your mouth closed, without opening your lips. You should feel a vibration under your palm. Do this exercise for a minute and you will hear that the voice has started to sound lower. 4. Work on argumentation skills.

Learn to formulate thoughts succinctly and clearly, and communicate your point of view diplomatically and correctly. The skill is useful both in everyday communication and in business communications. Take your time, start small. Are you in the store? Explain your purchase choice to yourself in three sentences. Have you lost the idea of narration and lost your way? Try again. The two most common mistakes are: Give all the arguments that are possible. Remember: brevity is the sister of talent. Start honing your argumentation skills right away at work meetings or negotiations. First, we hone everything in everyday life and only then implement it into work.

5. Practice

Theory is always beautiful and interesting, but if there is no practice, then there are no qualitative changes in speech. Schedule the time in your calendar. For example: Do a diction or voice exercise for ten minutes in the morning. Set aside a day during the week when you read an interesting article and retell it. A simple exercise for developing rhetoric from Stanislav Zubov, an expert in public speaking technology: take any topic and try to prepare a short and colorful presentation lasting two to three minutes. Imagine that you are explaining to someone how this topic works, how the subject is arranged, what the problem is, and so on. Teaching rhetoric

In the Russian-speaking segment alone, there are about a hundred courses on the development of public speaking and public speaking skills. They are most often paid. You can independently upgrade certain skills that are important for rhetoric in mobile applications. - Vocal Image. A simulator with exercises for voice.

- The speaker. An application for the development of memory and speech

- Diction. Exercises for breathing, jaw and tongue twisters.

Books on rhetoric

- Secrets of Great Speakers, by James Humes.

- "Public speaking. Pretend to know him," Chris Steward, Michael Wilkinson.

- "The Kama Sutra for the speaker," Radislav Gandapas.

- "TED-style presentation" by Carmine Gallo.

- "Explain it," Nikita Nepryakhin.

- "Never eat alone and other rules of networking," by Kate Ferrazzi.

- "You can negotiate anything," by Gavin Kennedy.

- "How to overcome shyness," by Philip Zimbardo.

- "Secrets of communication. The Magic of Words, by James Borg.

- "I'm listening to you," Eastwood Atwater.

It is useful to read not only books related to speaking, but also books with the formulation of thought in general. For example, related to business correspondence. Here we can safely recommend Barbara Minto's "Pyramid Principle", as well as Maxim Ilyakhov's "Write, Shorten". There are also many practical tips that can be applied not only in writing, but also in oral speech.